Open Source OS in Handheld embedded devices

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Engineering Graphics Lecture Class In 'Malayalam' DVD 2 of 4

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Lithography And Other Patterning Techniques For Future Electronics

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Design Of 2D Filters Using A Parallel Processor Architecture

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Engineering Graphics Lecture Class In 'Malayalam' DVD 1 of 4

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RSVP Protocol

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Real Time Image Processing Applied To Traffic Queue Detection Algorithm

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E Beam Hard Disk Drive Using Grated Carbon Nanotube

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Quantum computation

A quantum computer is a device for computation that makes direct use of quantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum computers are different from traditional computers based on transistors. The basic principle behind quantum computation is that quantum properties can be used to represent data and perform operations on these data.[1] A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as the universal quantum computer.

Although quantum computing is still in its infancy, experiments have been carried out in which quantum computational operations were executed on a very small number of qubits (quantum bit). Both practical and theoretical research continues, and many national government and military funding agencies support quantum computing research to develop quantum computers for both civilian and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.[2]

If large-scale quantum computers can be built, they will be able to solve certain problems much faster than any current classical computers (for example Shor's algorithm). Quantum computers do not allow the computation of functions that are not theoretically computable by classical computers, i.e. they do not alter the Church–Turing thesis. The gain is only in efficiency.

Basis

A classical computer has a memory made up of bits, where each bit represents either a one or a zero. A quantum computer maintains a sequence of qubits. A single qubit can represent a one, a zero, or, crucially, any quantum superposition of these; moreover, a pair of qubits can be in any quantum superposition of 4 states, and three qubits in any superposition of 8. In general a quantum computer with n qubits can be in an arbitrary superposition of up to 2n different states simultaneously (this compares to a normal computer that can only be in one of these 2n states at any one time). A quantum computer operates by manipulating those qubits with a fixed sequence of quantum logic gates. The sequence of gates to be applied is called a quantum algorithm.

An example of an implementation of qubits for a quantum computer could start with the use of particles with two spin states: "down" and "up" (typically written |{\downarrow}\rangle and |{\uparrow}\rangle, or |0{\rangle} and |1{\rangle}). But in fact any system possessing an observable quantity A which is conserved under time evolution and such that A has at least two discrete and sufficiently spaced consecutive eigenvalues, is a suitable candidate for implementing a qubit. This is true because any such system can be mapped onto an effective spin-1/2 system.
[edit] Bits vs. qubits
Qubits are made up of controlled particles and the means of control (e.g. devices that trap particles and switch them from one state to another).[3]

Consider first a classical computer that operates on a three-bit register. The state of the computer at any time is a probability distribution over the 23 = 8 different three-bit strings 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111. If it is a deterministic computer, then it is in exactly one of these states with probability 1. However, if it is a probabilistic computer, then there is a possibility of it being in any one of a number of different states. We can describe this probabilistic state by eight nonnegative numbers a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h (where a = probability computer is in state 000, b = probability computer is in state 001, etc.). There is a restriction that these probabilities sum to 1.

The state of a three-qubit quantum computer is similarly described by an eight-dimensional vector (a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h), called a ket. However, instead of adding to one, the sum of the squares of the coefficient magnitudes, | a | 2 + | b | 2 + ... + | h | 2, must equal one. Moreover, the coefficients are complex numbers. Since states are represented by complex wavefunctions, two states being added together will undergo interference. This is a key difference between quantum computing and probabilistic classical computing.[4]

If you measure the three qubits, then you will observe a three-bit string. The probability of measuring a string will equal the squared magnitude of that string's coefficients (using our example, probability that we read state as 000 = | a | 2, probability that we read state as 001 = | b | 2, etc..). Thus a measurement of the quantum state with coefficients (a,b,...,h) gives the classical probability distribution ( | a | 2, | b | 2,..., | h | 2). We say that the quantum state "collapses" to a classical state.

Note that an eight-dimensional vector can be specified in many different ways, depending on what basis you choose for the space. The basis of three-bit strings 000, 001, ..., 111 is known as the computational basis, and is often convenient, but other bases of unit-length, orthogonal vectors can also be used. Ket notation is often used to make explicit the choice of basis. For example, the state (a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h) in the computational basis can be written as

    a\,|000\rangle + b\,|001\rangle + c\,|010\rangle + d\,|011\rangle + e\,|100\rangle + f\,|101\rangle + g\,|110\rangle + h\,|111\rangle, where, e.g., |010\rangle = (0,0,1,0,0,0,0,0).

The computational basis for a single qubit (two dimensions) is |0\rangle = (1,0), |1\rangle = (0,1), but another common basis are the eigenvectors of the Pauli-x operator: |+\rangle = \tfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left(1,1\right) and |-\rangle = \tfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \left(1,-1\right).

Note that although recording a classical state of n bits, a 2n-dimensional probability distribution, requires an exponential number of real numbers, practically we can always think of the system as being exactly one of the n-bit strings—we just don't know which one. Quantum mechanically, this is not the case, and all 2n complex coefficients need to be kept track of to see how the quantum system evolves. For example, a 300-qubit quantum computer has a state described by 2300 (approximately 1090) complex numbers, more than the number of atoms in the observable universe.

Operation

While a classical three-bit state and a quantum three-qubit state are both eight-dimensional vectors, they are manipulated quite differently for classical or quantum computation. For computing in either case, the system must be initialized, for example into the all-zeros string, |000\rangle, corresponding to the vector (1,0,0,0,0,0,0,0). In classical randomized computation, the system evolves according to the application of stochastic matrices, which preserve that the probabilities add up to one (i.e., preserve the L1 norm). In quantum computation, on the other hand, allowed operations are unitary matrices, which are effectively rotations (they preserve that the sum of the squares add up to one, the Euclidean or L2 norm). (Exactly what unitaries can be applied depend on the physics of the quantum device.) Consequently, since rotations can be undone by rotating backward, quantum computations are reversible. (Technically, quantum operations can be probabilistic combinations of unitaries, so quantum computation really does generalize classical computation. See quantum circuit for a more precise formulation.)

Finally, upon termination of the algorithm, the result needs to be read off. In the case of a classical computer, we sample from the probability distribution on the three-bit register to obtain one definite three-bit string, say 000. Quantum mechanically, we measure the three-qubit state, which is equivalent to collapsing the quantum state down to a classical distribution (with the coefficients in the classical state being the squared magnitudes of the coefficients for the quantum state, as described above) followed by sampling from that distribution. Note that this destroys the original quantum state. Many algorithms will only give the correct answer with a certain probability, however by repeatedly initializing, running and measuring the quantum computer, the probability of getting the correct answer can be increased.

For more details on the sequences of operations used for various quantum algorithms, see universal quantum computer, Shor's algorithm, Grover's algorithm, Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm, amplitude amplification, quantum Fourier transform, quantum gate, quantum adiabatic algorithm and quantum error correction.
 
Potential

Integer factorization is believed to be computationally infeasible with an ordinary computer for large integers if they are the product of few prime numbers (e.g., products of two 300-digit primes).[5] By comparison, a quantum computer could efficiently solve this problem using Shor's algorithm to find its factors. This ability would allow a quantum computer to decrypt many of the cryptographic systems in use today, in the sense that there would be a polynomial time (in the number of digits of the integer) algorithm for solving the problem. In particular, most of the popular public key ciphers are based on the difficulty of factoring integers (or the related discrete logarithm problem which can also be solved by Shor's algorithm), including forms of RSA. These are used to protect secure Web pages, encrypted email, and many other types of data. Breaking these would have significant ramifications for electronic privacy and security.

However, other existing cryptographic algorithms don't appear to be broken by these algorithms.[6][7] Some public-key algorithms are based on problems other than the integer factorization and discrete logarithm problems to which Shor's algorithm applies, like the McEliece cryptosystem based on a problem in coding theory.[6][8] Lattice based cryptosystems are also not known to be broken by quantum computers, and finding a polynomial time algorithm for solving the dihedral hidden subgroup problem, which would break many lattice based cryptosystems, is a well-studied open problem.[9] It has been proven that applying Grover's algorithm to break a symmetric (secret key) algorithm by brute force requires roughly 2n/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared with roughly 2n in the classical case,[10] meaning that symmetric key lengths are effectively halved: AES-256 would have the same security against an attack using Grover's algorithm that AES-128 has against classical brute-force search (see Key size). Quantum cryptography could potentially fulfill some of the functions of public key cryptography.

Besides factorization and discrete logarithms, quantum algorithms offering a more than polynomial speedup over the best known classical algorithm have been found for several problems,[11] including the simulation of quantum physical processes from chemistry and solid state physics, the approximation of Jones polynomials, and solving Pell's equation. No mathematical proof has been found that shows that an equally fast classical algorithm cannot be discovered, although this is considered unlikely. For some problems, quantum computers offer a polynomial speedup. The most well-known example of this is quantum database search, which can be solved by Grover's algorithm using quadratically fewer queries to the database than are required by classical algorithms. In this case the advantage is provable. Several other examples of provable quantum speedups for query problems have subsequently been discovered, such as for finding collisions in two-to-one functions and evaluating NAND trees.

Consider a problem that has these four properties:

   1. The only way to solve it is to guess answers repeatedly and check them,
   2. There are n possible answers to check,
   3. Every possible answer takes the same amount of time to check, and
   4. There are no clues about which answers might be better: generating possibilities randomly is just as good as checking them in some special order.

An example of this is a password cracker that attempts to guess the password for an encrypted file (assuming that the password has a maximum possible length).

For problems with all four properties, the time for a quantum computer to solve this will be proportional to the square root of n. That can be a very large speedup, reducing some problems from years to seconds. It can be used to attack symmetric ciphers such as Triple DES and AES by attempting to guess the secret key.

Grover's algorithm can also be used to obtain a quadratic speed-up [over a brute-force search] for a class of problems known as NP-complete.

Since chemistry and nanotechnology rely on understanding quantum systems, and such systems are impossible to simulate in an efficient manner classically, many believe quantum simulation will be one of the most important applications of quantum computing.[12]

There are a number of practical difficulties in building a quantum computer, and thus far quantum computers have only solved trivial problems. David DiVincenzo, of IBM, listed the following requirements for a practical quantum computer:[13]

    * scalable physically to increase the number of qubits;
    * qubits can be initialized to arbitrary values;
    * quantum gates faster than decoherence time;
    * universal gate set;
    * qubits can be read easily.

Quantum decoherence

One of the greatest challenges is controlling or removing quantum decoherence. This usually means isolating the system from its environment as the slightest interaction with the external world would cause the system to decohere. This effect is irreversible, as it is non-unitary, and is usually something that should be highly controlled, if not avoided. Decoherence times for candidate systems, in particular the transverse relaxation time T2 (for NMR and MRI technology, also called the dephasing time), typically range between nanoseconds and seconds at low temperature.[4]

These issues are more difficult for optical approaches as the timescales are orders of magnitude shorter and an often-cited approach to overcoming them is optical pulse shaping. Error rates are typically proportional to the ratio of operating time to decoherence time, hence any operation must be completed much more quickly than the decoherence time.

If the error rate is small enough, it is thought to be possible to use quantum error correction, which corrects errors due to decoherence, thereby allowing the total calculation time to be longer than the decoherence time. An often cited figure for required error rate in each gate is 10−4. This implies that each gate must be able to perform its task in one 10,000th of the decoherence time of the system.

Meeting this scalability condition is possible for a wide range of systems. However, the use of error correction brings with it the cost of a greatly increased number of required qubits. The number required to factor integers using Shor's algorithm is still polynomial, and thought to be between L and L2, where L is the number of bits in the number to be factored; error correction algorithms would inflate this figure by an additional factor of L. For a 1000-bit number, this implies a need for about 104 qubits without error correction.[14] With error correction, the figure would rise to about 107 qubits. Note that computation time is about L2 or about 107 steps and on 1 MHz, about 10 seconds.

A very different approach to the stability-decoherence problem is to create a topological quantum computer with anyons, quasi-particles used as threads and relying on braid theory to form stable logic gates.[15][16]

EC 601 Digital MOdule I,II,III

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Basic Circuit Concepts EC 603 Module III

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Transformer Tests EC 302 Module I

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Noise EC 405 Module III

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Power Transistor & Power Mosfet EC 406 mod I

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Other 8 Bit µP and 8086

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8085 Architecture EC 402

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Advanced Web Server Mini Project

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Laplace Transforms EC 301 Module III

A full module of Engineering Mathamatics II Laplace Transforms. Figure below shows a few pages.

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Neuroprosthetics

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Advanced Power Management Techniques in Next Generation Wireless Networks

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UPS EC 406 module 4

Lecture note for UPS(Uninterruptible Power Supply). EC 406 Pwer Electronics Module 4.Below shows the 1st few pages!!!



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Inverters EC 406 Module 3

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Choppers Ec 406 Module 3

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Phase Controlled Rectifiers Ec 406 Module 2

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Systems Engineering in Wireless Communications

Wiley 2010 | 356 | ISBN: 0470021780 | PDF | 5

 This book provides the reader with a complete coverage of radio resource management for 3G wireless communications..

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Electric Drives - EC 406 Power Electronics

Textbook notes of ec406  on electric drives. Includes ac and dc drives. The flash screen below represents a sample of two pages of the section.



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D.T Speech Signal Processing ,Thomas Quatieri

A full course e book on Discrete Time Speech Signal Processing.Included as a textbook for EC 801 Audio And Video Engineering

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Optical Fiber Communication , Gerd Kaiser

A full course text book on Opto Electronics . Included as the text book of EC 803 Opto Electronics And Communication.

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Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice - EC 802

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Monochrome and Colour Television,RR Gulati - EC801

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The Electronics Hand Book edited by JC Whitaker - EC 801

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Digital Signal Processing: Principles, Algorithms and Applications

fundamentals of discrete-time signals, systems, and modern digital processing algorithms and applications for students in electrical engineering, computer engineering, and computer science

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Matlab m Files for Covolution,modulation etc

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Brain Drop

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B.Tech Degree VI Sem Exam April 2010 Question Papers

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Proteus Design Suit 7.7

Proteus is software for microprocessor simulation, schematic capture, and printed circuit board (PCB) design. It is developed by Labcenter Electronics.

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ISIS Schematic Capture - a tool for entering designs.

PROSPICE Mixed mode SPICE simulation - industry standard SPICE3F5 simulator combined with a digital simulator.
ARES PCB Layout - PCB design system with automatic component placer, rip-up and retry auto-router and interactive design rule checking.

 

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VSM - Virtual System Modelling lets cosimulate embedded software for popular micro-controllers alongside hardware design.
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Nemerical Methods Using Matlab

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MatLab: The Language Of Technical Computing

MATLAB® is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numeric computation. Using the MATLAB product, you can solve technical computing problems faster than with traditional programming languages, such as C, C++, and Fortran. You can use MATLAB in a wide range of applications, including signal and image processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and computational biology. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions, available separately) extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas. MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your MATLAB algorithms and applications.


Key Features
* High-level language for technical computing.
* Development environment for managing code, files, and data.
* Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving.
* Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, and numerical integration.
* 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data.
* Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces.
* Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel.

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